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- Labours of Sport Coaching - The Self-Determined Coach (FEB 25 ISSUE)
Labours of Sport Coaching - The Self-Determined Coach (FEB 25 ISSUE)
The newsletter bonding the science of motivation with the art of coaching.
Mark Carroll
February 01, 2025
Welcome
Welcome to the very FIRST issue of my newsletter.
Check out the summary below for a quick insight on what this issue looks at, and scroll through to find out more.
Enjoy!
At a glance
Systematic review finds autonomy-supportive coaching improves athlete motivation and well-being, offering support to the universal value of psychological needs in sports.
Empowering coaching climates shown to reduce athletes' doping intentions by enhancing self-regulatory efficacy and fostering anti-doping attitudes.
Can commands in coaching support motivation? My blog explores how direct instructions can balance structure and autonomy, shaping a positive motivational environment.
3 practical ways for embedding SDT into your coaching practice today!
I’ve started psychosocial player and coach development projects in football, and am entering the AI space with SDT alongside me!
Interview features from the LoSC podcast around changing sports as a coach and principles of effective children’s coaching
In the (Journal) News
Article 1: Mossman et al. (2024)
Title: Autonomy Support in Sport and Exercise Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Summary: This review and meta-analysis examines the effects of autonomy support in sport and exercise environments. Synthesising data from 119 studies, the analysis reveals significant positive correlations between autonomy support and athletes’ self-determined motivation, psychological need satisfaction, and well-being, and negative correlation with non-self-determined motivation, psychological need frustration, and ill-being. Strong positive relationships were also determined between coach autonomy support and other adaptive coaching behaviours including competence- and relatedness-supportive behaviours. Meanwhile coach autonomy support was negatively related to need thwarting coaching behaviours. The review concludes with support for the notion that autonomy-supportive coaching is universally beneficial. These findings stress the importance of coaching strategies that prioritise athletes’ psychological needs.
Citation and link to full paper:
Article 2: Hoppen & Sukys (2024)
Title: Perceived Coach-Created Empowering and Disempowering Climate Effects on Athletes’ Intentions to Use Doping: The Mediational Role of Self-Regulatory Efficacy and Attitudes towards Doping
Summary: This study investigates how coach-created climates—empowering or disempowering—affect athletes' intentions to engage in doping. The researchers explored self-regulatory efficacy (the ability to resist doping temptation) and athletes’ attitudes towards doping as mediators in this relationship, in a sample of 948 athletes. Findings revealed that empowering climates, characterised by autonomy support and encouragement, lowered perceived doping intentions by fostering positive self-regulation and anti-doping attitudes. Conversely, disempowering climates, marked by controlling behaviors and neglect, heightened perceived doping intentions by undermining self-regulation and encouraging permissive attitudes towards doping. This study highlights the critical role of coaches and motivational coaching behaviours in shaping ethical behavior in sports.
Citation and link to full paper:
A musing on motivation theory in sport coaching
The Role of Commands in Coaching: Control or Structure?
In the dynamic environment of sports coaching, the use of commands by coaches is often viewed as a straightforward tool for control. However, a closer examination reveals a more nuanced role, raising important questions about the purpose and impact of direct instructions on athletes’ motivation and development.
Commands in coaching are not all the same. They can be experienced by athletes in different ways depending on how, why, and when they are delivered. For instance, a coach’s firm directive might aim to manage a situation, organise a group, or even protect an athlete’s safety, rather than simply exert control. This distinction between commands that coerce and those that support structure is critical to understanding the motivational environment coaches create.
Consider a scenario where a coach issues a command to ensure the safety of an athlete. While this directive limits autonomy in the moment, it may still be perceived as helpful because it aligns with the athlete’s understanding of the broader rules and expectations of the environment. In such cases, the command provides structure, helping athletes navigate and succeed within a framework rather than diminishing their autonomy.
Research has shown that subtle differences in coaching behaviours carry significant motivational implications. Commands, often labelled as controlling, can also serve as tools for fostering structure and clarity when applied thoughtfully. This tension between managing behaviour and supporting autonomy highlights a gap in current coaching research, particularly in the application of self-determination theory (SDT).
To support coaches in navigating these complexities, further research is needed to explore the mechanics of direct instruction. How do athletes experience commands in practice? When do they foster structure and adaptive motivation, and when might they hinder progress? Understanding these subtleties could empower coaches to tailor their approach, managing the inherent tensions in their role while creating an environment conducive to high quality motivation and development.
By better distinguishing and categorising these behaviours, researchers and practitioners alike could refine their understanding of the coach-created motivational environment. In doing so, we can move closer to equipping coaches with the tools to balance control with autonomy, ensuring athletes thrive within supportive yet structured environments.
I would urge researchers and coaches to reconsider the use of commands not as inherently controlling, but as potential tools for growth—when used with intention and care.
My research updates from “the field”
Well there’s a lot happening just now!
I’ve recently had an MRes student, and a PhD student start their research journeys under my supervision, and they are tasked with evaluating and developing a psychosocial player and coach development project I’ve started within a professional football club’s youth academy in Scotland.
For the past year I’ve been delivering workshops and on field activities with players as part of an extensively periodised curriculum I created to foster and build on their mental and social skills as they move through their academy journey. I’m now transitioning out of the club to manage things directly from my university, and with trainee sport psychs now also coming into the club, and the coaches really buying into the directives they’ve been given for embedding psychosocial training into their day to day session planning with players - which emanates from supporting their psychological needs in order to build their commitment to train and grow themselves in all ways - I’m very proud of the culture we’re building.
The PhD work will include some case study work with coaches, where the student will explore the antecedents of their motivational behaviours, then use that information to help enhance their training and support so that motivationally adaptive behaviours are more likely. This is a novel approach to coach education due to the tailored approach and utilisation of antecedent information, which is untapped potent resource for change!
Another project I’m getting off the ground is a new research venture looking into the place of SDT within AI software used to support coaches’ practice and development. I feel there’s value to not just considering the impact AI is having or could have on coaches’ psychological needs and subsequent motivation quality, but also how SDT principles can be embedded in the actual design of such tools to improve their effectiveness.
Alongside these exciting developments, I’m finally getting round to the task of starting to develop manuscripts from my PhD thesis, starting with an article looking at influences of coaching your own child for the motivational environment coaches create. I recorded a podcast episode sharing the preliminary findings. Check it out over on the Labours of Sport Coaching podcast.
Coach hacks for higher quality motivation
Some easy to use practical methods for embedding SDT into your next coaching session!
Host athlete-designed challenge sessions.
Why It Works: Encourages autonomy (athletes create challenges), competence (test their skills), and relatedness (competitive bonding - if done in the right spirit).
Best Fit: Any time, but especially when athletes require new stimulus
Time Requirements: Moderate, depends on complexity of challenges.
Challenges & Solutions: Some athletes may feel unsure about designing challenges. Provide a framework to help them get started.
Actionable Tip: Break challenges into skill-focused tasks with varying difficulty levels. Bound activities to more general themes or specific ones depending on athletes’ understanding.
Allow athletes to set their own performance benchmarks.
Why It Works: Promotes autonomy (personal responsibility), competence (clear standards), and relatedness (collaboration on progress).
Best Fit: Preseason or during individual performance reviews.
Time Requirements: Moderate, may require one-on-one meetings if looking for individualisation.
Challenges & Solutions: Athletes may set unreasonably high or low goals. Provide guidance and refine if necessary.
Actionable Tip: Use a balanced approach to goal-setting (realistic, challenging, and specific - focusing on process goals that offer athletes perception of control, i.e., autonomy).
Use guided discovery instead of direct instruction during drills.
Why It Works: Builds autonomy (exploration), competence (problem-solving), and relatedness (collaborative learning).
Best Fit: Skill development or technical practice sessions.
Time Requirements: Moderate; takes time to guide athletes toward discovery.
Challenges & Solutions: Some athletes may struggle without direct guidance. Offer hints but allow for trial and error.
Actionable Tip: Ask leading questions to guide discovery without providing immediate answers. However if athletes really struggle, use judgement to consider whether further unsuccessful questioning risks damaging perceptions of competence and athlete requires being told instead, to offer basis and structure for future questions.
There’s more to coaching than motivation! Wider learning from the Labours of Sport Coaching podcast
Guest interview features from recent episodes.
Can Coaches Change Sports? Reflections with Tom Hartley
Tom Hartley, Head of Competitive Development at Motorsport UK, shared his fascinating journey from football to motorsport coaching. His reflections reveal profound insights into learning across sports and the broader coaching landscape.
The Journey Across Sports
Tom began his career as a football coach, working at club level and with the English FA. He described his transition to UK Coaching as a revelation, saying: “I didn’t know what I didn’t know.” This role exposed him to the diversity of coaching philosophies across sports and challenged his long-held assumptions. “Being exposed to different sports,” he explained, “was priceless. It made me rethink how I approached practice design and coach development.”
Now in motorsport, Tom navigates a unique challenge: a sport dominated by data and technology. He noted, “In motorsport, the conversations often center on data. But what if you had no data? How would you coach?” This thought experiment highlights the need for coaching adaptability and focusing on human elements, even in tech-heavy environments.
Tom’s experiences emphasise the value of borrowing perspectives from unexpected places. For instance, he recounted inviting RAF trainers to share how fighter pilots manage decision-making under pressure. While the contexts differ, the principles—such as using simulations to build decision-making skills—are transferable. Similarly, skateboarding inspired him to incorporate creativity and free play into football training.
“What if we took a skate park mindset into a football practice?” Tom mused. “Encourage creativity and decision-making—not all the time, but enough to thread it into our approach.”
Key Takeaways for Coaches
Change Your Perspective: Whether stepping into another sport or seeking feedback from athletes, a new viewpoint can illuminate blind spots. “A change in perspective can enrich your coaching work,” Tom advised.
Be Curious: Tom urged coaches to hold their beliefs lightly and remain open to updating them. “If your beliefs are set in stone, you risk stagnation,” he cautioned.
Avoid Copy-and-Paste Solutions: Success in one sport doesn’t always translate directly to another. Instead, Tom recommended applying and adapting what works for your unique context.
Final Thoughts
Tom’s journey underscores the richness of coaching as a discipline that transcends boundaries. As he put it: “Great coaching often happens in the gray areas. The ability to navigate uncertainty and make informed decisions is what sets exceptional coaches apart.”
For coaches considering a foray into new sports or seeking inspiration, Tom’s advice is clear: stay curious, embrace discomfort, and remember that the best learning often lies just outside your comfort zone.
LISTEN TO THE FULL CONVERSATION HERE (OR WHEREVER YOU LISTEN TO PODCASTS):
Effective Children's Coaching: Lessons from Peter Sturgess
Peter Sturgess, former Head of the Foundation Pathway at the English FA, shared invaluable insights into coaching young players. With decades of experience spanning grassroots and academy football, Peter's reflections centred on creating developmentally appropriate environments for children.
The Children's Game vs. The Adult Game
Peter opened by highlighting a critical coaching principle: “The game must fit the child, not the child fit the game.” He urged coaches to resist prematurely replicating adult game structures in children’s football. “Scaled-down formats like 2v2 and 3v3 allow for more time on the ball, better decision-making, and greater enjoyment,” he said, stressing that these formats help build foundational skills and confidence.
He also noted the pitfalls of over-structuring play: “Young players need opportunities to dribble, make mistakes, and explore solutions. Shouting 'pass it' to a six-year-old ignores their developmental stage and cognitive load. Instead, let them learn to make those decisions over time.”
Building Confidence and Belonging
A recurring theme was the importance of creating an environment where children feel valued. Peter explained, “If a child feels on the periphery, they’re less likely to stay engaged. Coaches need to design sessions that make every player feel competent and included.” This involves balancing challenge and support: “High challenge needs high support,” Peter emphasised.
Practical strategies included giving children ownership over aspects of training. For example, asking players how to make an activity more challenging or inviting them to suggest session goals fosters autonomy and confidence. Peter reflected, “When players contribute, they’re more invested. It becomes about them, not the coach.”
The Power of Smaller Formats
Peter’s passion for small-sided games was clear. He described them as the “building blocks of football” that naturally transition into larger formats. He recounted introducing 2v2 games for five-year-olds, noting the enthusiasm and motivation these games inspired: “When the ball goes out, four players rush to retrieve it. That tells me they just want to play and be involved.”
However, Peter warned against one-size-fits-all approaches. “Some children need more time on the ball to develop their confidence, while others might benefit from added tactical elements. Tailor the environment to meet their needs,” he advised.
Key Takeaways for Coaches
Design for Development: Use age-appropriate formats and avoid rushing children into adult-like playstyles.
Balance Challenge and Support: Encourage children to experiment and learn through mistakes while providing the necessary support.
Foster Autonomy: Involve players in shaping sessions to build their confidence and sense of ownership.
Prioritise Participation: Ensure every child gets meaningful time on the pitch. “Until we can guarantee a full game for every player each week, we’re not giving them the best start,” Peter noted.
Final Thoughts
Peter’s insights remind us that coaching children is about more than developing technical skills; it’s about nurturing their love for the game and their broader personal growth. “Our role is to make football an enjoyable, inclusive space where every child can thrive,” he concluded.
For coaches working with young players, Peter’s message is clear: design sessions that meet children where they are, celebrate their individuality, and help them discover the joy of sport.
LISTEN TO THE FULL CONVERSATION HERE (OR WHEREVER YOU LISTEN TO PODCASTS):
Some upcoming LoSC podcast episodes to look forward to!
Pseudoscience in sport coaching, with Derek O'Riordan
Effective half-time coaching, with Eamon Devlin
To coach, teach, or train, with Dennie Wilson
A Christian approach to sport coaching, with Don Vinson
Before you leave
I hope you’ve enjoyed this first issue. I’ll be back next month!
Please comment or get in touch with me with any feedback or ideas for making this newsletter better in its early stages - it’s a working progress, after all! And share the newsletter with any researchers, students, coaches, and coach developers you believe would find it useful! Because it’s here for the long term!
Here’s a shareable link to copy: Subscribe | Labours of Sport Coaching - The Self-Determined Coach
Lastly check out the below to support the wider Labours of Sport Coaching mission this newsletter is serving, access my consultancy services, and reach me on social media:
Support the Labours of Sport Coaching mission: https://labours-of-sport.captivate.fm/support
Access my consultancy services: https://markjcarrollcoaching.wordpress.com/consultancy/
Connect with me on social media: https://www.linkedin.com/in/markjcarrollresearcher/
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